Climate and Topography

Ecology includes the mapping of climate and land topography around the world. Th ese two physical features help identify the biomes. Th e features of biomes create a clearer picture of large, habitats and also smaller, specialized habitats called microenvironments. For instance, soil is a habitat for many invertebrates and microorganisms, but the oxygen-free soils located under bogs and swamps make up microenvironments. Mapping and monitoring therefore cover a wide range of territories. Ecological studies begin with global scans of biomes and then focus on smaller, more specialized places until they reach single microenvironments.

The Earth’s biosphere contains the parts of the planet where life exists (almost everywhere). The biosphere contains the atmosphere (troposphere), surface and underground waters (hydrosphere), and the soils and sediments of the Earth’s crust (lithosphere). Biology and ecology focus on areas within the biosphere that define life and the many roles played by living things

In environmental science, the first step involves an understanding of what will be measured and what these measurements will reveal about the environment. Measurements taken to define biomes produce different final results than a single temperature or pH measurement, for instance, of a microenvironment. Ecological studies often start from the large scale and
progress to the small, in other words, from biomes to unique ecosystems. Biomes contain living and nonliving components in a terrestrial area; deserts, grasslands, and forests are examples of biomes. Biogeographic regions are similar to biomes, but they contain more detail regarding climate and topography, which in turn determines the types of vegetation growing in them. Vegetation determines a range of animal species most likely to thrive
in the area. Each biogeographic region, such as a large island or a continent, contains communities. A community is a collection of all the species living and interacting in an area. Individuals of the same species form organizations within each community known as populations. Populations may contain smaller groups of individuals such as packs, herds, or flocks.

Communities in a specific shared region may also make up an ecosystem. A freshwater lake provides a simplified example. In a lake, microbial

 

 

and invertebrate communities swim in the water, underwater plant communities grow along the submerged surfaces, and plant and insect communities gravitate toward the water-air interface at the water’s surface. The entire ecosystem contains these communities in addition to populations of fish, amphibians, and waterfowl.

Climate type and topography both define the features of biogeographic regions. Climate is a region’s general weather patterns that occur over an extended period of time, usually a year. In 1928 Russian- German climatologist Wladimir Köppen devised a climate classification system that closely mirrors the biogeographic regions ecologists use today. The Köppen Climate Classification System contains the following categories:

• tropical moist—all months have average temperatures above 64°F (18°C); includes local climates called tropical wet, tropical monsoon, and tropical dry (savanna)
• dry—deficient precipitation most of the year; includes local climates called dry arid (desert) and dry semiarid (steppe)
• moist midlatitude with mild winters—warm, humid summers and mild winters; includes local climates called humid subtropical, Mediterranean, and marine
• moist midlatitude with cold winters—warm to cool summers and winters less than 37°F (3°C); includes local climates called dry winters, dry summers, and all-season wet
• polar—year-round cold with warmest temperature less than 50°F (10°C); includes local climates called polar tundra and the polar ice caps

Two factors influence climate: ocean currents and topography. Ocean currents and the winds they create exchange heat with the atmosphere and also transfer heat across the planet’s surface. Land masses exchange heat more slowly than water, partially due to the land’s topography. Topography consists of the physical and natural features of the land’s surface; it influences climate because land at different elevations holds and releases heat differently. Topography also affects the type of soil, moisture levels, humidity, and sunlight penetration that ecosystems receive.